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86 chapters · Hindi + English
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Ancient-to-modern Indian history and the national movement — empires, INC sessions, Gandhian struggles, constitutional Acts and 1947 milestones asked at PGT GK level.
India's location, physiography, rivers, climate, soils and national parks plus a focused Uttar Pradesh block — the full GK geography asked in PGT papers.
Constituent Assembly to working polity — Preamble, Fundamental Rights, DPSP, Parliament, judiciary, amendments, bodies and federal design at PGT GK depth.
National income, planning, RBI and banking, budget and taxation, inflation, poverty schemes and the 1991 reforms — PGT-level economy GK.
Physics, chemistry and biology core facts with everyday applications — units, laws, elements, diseases, nutrition and space science at PGT GK level.
Ecosystems, energy flow, biodiversity, pollution, climate conventions and India's environmental laws — PGT-level environment GK.
UP's formation, regions, rivers, history, culture, GI crafts, administration and economy — the state-specific GK block of the PGT paper.
How current affairs is tested in GK papers — polity, economy, science, defence, world bodies, indices and the anchoring events of 2023–25.
Education governance, NEP 2020, school and higher-education schemes, literacy data and education awards — the teaching-sector GK block.
Sports governance and events, national and international awards, and important books with authors — the trophy-shelf GK chapter.
Cell wall, nucleoid, plasmids, ribosomes and flagella of bacteria and archaea — sizes, chemistry and the classic PGT traps.
Membrane-bound nucleus, endomembrane system, energy organelles and cytoskeleton — the compartmentalised plan that PGT papers test against prokaryotes.
Organelle-by-organelle inventory — membranes, enzyme payloads, sites of ATP and protein work, and the census-based questions the paper loves.
G1–S–G2–M phases, checkpoints, cyclin-CDK control and the classic karyokinesis/cytokinesis distinctions asked at PGT level.
Stage-by-stage nuclear division — condensation, spindle capture, sister separation — and the chromosome-count and drug-arrest traps of the PGT paper.
Reduction division — synapsis, crossing over, two successive divisions, haploid gametes — plus the stage-wise traps that separate PGT answers.
Double helix chemistry — bases, bonds, forms (A/B/Z), supercoiling and packaging — the quantitative facts and model-history names the exam reuses.
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and the regulatory RNA world — structures, sizes, sites of synthesis and the anticodon/codon logic PGT papers test.
Semiconservative copying — origins, forks, leading/lagging strands, enzymes and proofreading — the mechanism questions that recur in PGT papers.
DNA → RNA synthesis — promoters, polymerases, elongation and eukaryotic processing — the flow that turns a gene into a message.
mRNA → protein on the ribosome — charging, initiation, elongation, termination and the ribosome machinery PGT papers test.
Segregation and independent assortment — the pea-plant experiments, the ratios, the test cross and the exceptions that examiners love.
Genes that travel together — coupling vs repulsion, linkage groups, recombination frequency and the maps Morgan built.
Homologous exchange at pachytene — chiasmata, double crossovers, interference and the mechanism that writes recombination into gametes.
Genes on the X and Y — hemizygosity, crisscross inheritance, haemophilia, colour-blindness and the X-inactivation dosage system.
Point mutations, frameshifts, chromosome changes — the classification, the causes and the consequences that exams test.
p² + 2pq + q² = 1 — allele frequencies in equilibrium, the five assumptions, and the population-genetics arithmetic exams test.
Allele frequencies as evolution — selection, drift, gene flow, and the forces that shape gene pools over time.
Cutting, copying, and recombining DNA — restriction enzymes, ligases, vectors, and the toolkit of genetic engineering.
The polymerase chain reaction in depth — the cycle, the components, the variants (RT, qPCR, multiplex) and the applications.
Isolating, inserting, and propagating a gene — the steps of molecular cloning, libraries, and the verification workflow.
The CRISPR-Cas9 system — the bacterial immune system repurposed as a programmable gene-editing tool.
The algae — pigments, thallus organisation, reproduction, and the classification of the photosynthetic protists.
The fungi — chitin walls, hyphal organisation, reproduction, and the classification of the heterotrophic eukaryotes.
Mosses and liverworts — the amphibians of the plant kingdom, the alternation of generations, and the move to land.
The ferns and their allies — the first vascular plants, the sporophyte-dominant life cycle, and the seed-less vascular line.
The naked-seed plants — cones, no fruits, the seed innovation, and the gymnosperm lineages (pines, cycads, Ginkgo, Gnetum).
The flowering plants — the flower, the fruit, double fertilisation, and the dominance of the angiosperm world.
The root — tap vs fibrous, root regions, modifications, and the anatomy of the underground axis.
The stem — nodes and internodes, modifications (rhizome, tuber, bulb, runner, tendril), and the anatomy of the shoot axis.
The leaf — the photosynthetic organ — parts, types, venation, modifications, and anatomy.
The flower — whorls, androecium, gynoecium, inflorescence, pollination, fertilisation, and the fruit as the ripened ovary.
Meristematic and permanent tissues, parenchyma/collenchyma/sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem, and the tissue systems of the plant body.
The light reactions and the Calvin cycle — the plant's solar-powered food factory in the chloroplast.
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration — glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport, and the energy harvest of the plant cell.
The phytohormones — auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA — and the growth regulation of the plant.
The water potential, osmosis, turgor, and the plant's water economy — how water moves into and through the plant.
How the water rises to the tree top — transpiration pull, cohesion-tension, root pressure, and the xylem's water column.
The essential mineral elements — the macronutrients and micronutrients, the deficiency symptoms, and the nitrogen cycle.
The plant pathogens — the fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases, their symptoms, spread, and control.
How the plant defends itself — the structural barriers, the R-genes, the gene-for-gene model, and the defence chemistry.
The useful plants — the cereals, the pulses, the fibres, the spices, the timber, and the medicinal plants of the economy.
The single-celled animals — the Amoeba, the Paramecium, the flagellates, and the parasitic protozoa of the human diseases.
The backbone-less animals — from the sponges to the echinoderms — the phyla, the body plans, and the examples.
The backboned animals — the fishes, the amphibians, the reptiles, the birds, and the mammals — the five vertebrate classes.
The digestive system — the mouth to the anus, the enzymes, the absorption, and the digestive glands.
The breathing system — the lungs, the alveoli, the gas exchange, the oxygen transport, and the breathing mechanism.
The circulatory system — the heart, the blood vessels, the double circulation, the blood, and the cardiac cycle.
The excretory system — the kidneys, the nephron, the urine formation, and the body's waste removal.
The control system — the brain, the spinal cord, the neuron, the reflex arc, and the impulse transmission.
The hormone system — the glands, the chemical messengers, the feedback control, and the body's slow coordination.
The reproduction — the asexual and the sexual modes, the gametes, the fertilisation, and the human reproductive systems.
The development — the zygote to the foetus, the cleavage, the gastrulation, the germ layers, and the organ formation.
The defence system — the barriers, the innate and the adaptive immunity, the antibodies, and the vaccination.
The parasite diseases — the protozoa, the helminths, the malaria, the amoebiasis, the worm infections, and the life cycles.
The vectors — the mosquitoes, the flies, the ticks that carry the diseases, the transmission routes, and the control.
The ecosystem — the biotic and the abiotic components, the producers, the consumers, the decomposers, and the food chain.
The energy flow — the sun's entry, the one-way flow, the 10% law, the food chain, the food web, and the pyramids.
The nutrient cycles — the carbon, the nitrogen, the phosphorus, the water, and the ecosystem's recycling.
The population — the density, the growth curves, the carrying capacity, the birth/death rates, and the regulation.
The biodiversity — the genetic, the species, the ecosystem diversity, the hotspots, and the threats.
The biodiversity conservation — the in-situ (the parks, the sanctuaries, the biosphere reserves) vs the ex-situ (the zoo, the seed bank, the botanical garden).
The pollution — the air, the water, the soil, the noise, the causes, the effects, and the control.
The climate change — the global warming, the greenhouse effect, the causes, the effects, the mitigation, and the adaptation.
The wildlife laws — the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, the schedules, the protected areas, the projects (the Tiger, the Elephant), and the international treaties.
The Darwin's evolution — the natural selection, the variation, the struggle, the survival of the fittest, the evidence, and the Lamarck's contrast.
The modern synthesis — the Darwin + the genetics merger, the gene-pool thinking, the mutation/selection/drift/gene-flow forces, and the population genetics.
The fossils — the preservation, the types, the dating, the transitional forms (the Archaeopteryx, the horse), and the geological time.
The adaptive radiation — the one ancestor's spread into the many niches, the Darwin's finches, the convergence, the divergence, and the island's role.
The carbohydrates — the monosaccharides, the disaccharides, the polysaccharides, the reducing sugars, and the energy + the structure roles.
The proteins — the amino acids, the peptide bond, the four structure-levels, the fibrous/globular classes, and the functions (the enzymes, the antibodies, the transport).
The lipids — the fatty acids, the triglycerides, the phospholipids, the steroids, the saturated/unsaturated split, and the membrane + the energy roles.
The enzymes — the biological catalysts, the active site, the lock-and-key/induced-fit, the cofactors, the pH/temperature effects, the inhibition, and the naming.
The vitamins — the fat-soluble (the A/D/E/K) vs the water-soluble (the B-complex + the C), the deficiency diseases, the coenzyme roles, and the sources.
The bioenergetics — the free energy, the exergonic/endergonic, the ATP's role, the oxidation-reduction, and the cellular energy-coupling.
The ATP — the structure, the ATP-ADP cycle, the glycolysis-Krebs-ETC yield, the ATP-synthase, and the cellular energy-economy.