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68 chapters · Hindi + English
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Ancient-to-modern Indian history and the national movement — empires, INC sessions, Gandhian struggles, constitutional Acts and 1947 milestones asked at PGT GK level.
India's location, physiography, rivers, climate, soils and national parks plus a focused Uttar Pradesh block — the full GK geography asked in PGT papers.
Constituent Assembly to working polity — Preamble, Fundamental Rights, DPSP, Parliament, judiciary, amendments, bodies and federal design at PGT GK depth.
National income, planning, RBI and banking, budget and taxation, inflation, poverty schemes and the 1991 reforms — PGT-level economy GK.
Physics, chemistry and biology core facts with everyday applications — units, laws, elements, diseases, nutrition and space science at PGT GK level.
Ecosystems, energy flow, biodiversity, pollution, climate conventions and India's environmental laws — PGT-level environment GK.
UP's formation, regions, rivers, history, culture, GI crafts, administration and economy — the state-specific GK block of the PGT paper.
How current affairs is tested in GK papers — polity, economy, science, defence, world bodies, indices and the anchoring events of 2023–25.
Education governance, NEP 2020, school and higher-education schemes, literacy data and education awards — the teaching-sector GK block.
Sports governance and events, national and international awards, and important books with authors — the trophy-shelf GK chapter.
Kinetic molecular theory of gases at post-graduate depth: derivation of PV = ⅓mNc̄², Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution, molecular collisions and transport phenomena, equipartition and heat capacities, non-ideal gases, van der Waals and other equations of state, corresponding states and liquefaction.
The liquid state at PGT depth: nature of intermolecular forces, vapour pressure and its temperature dependence (Clausius–Clapeyron), surface tension and viscosity — measurement methods (capillary rise, stalagmometer, Ostwald viscometer, Poiseuille), parachor, rheochor and surface/viscosity temperature laws.
Crystalline solids at PGT depth: crystal lattice and unit cell, seven crystal systems and 14 Bravais lattices, Miller indices, X-ray diffraction and Bragg's law, packing in cubic systems with coordination numbers and void fractions, NaCl/CsCl/ZnS/diamond structures, metallic bonding, crystal defects (Schottky, Frenkel, F-centre, non-stoichiometric), and electrical/magnetic classification.
Colloids and surface chemistry at PGT depth: classification of colloids, preparation and purification (dialysis, electrodialysis, ultrafiltration), Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, zeta potential and coagulation (Hardy–Schulze rule), gold number, emulsions and gels; adsorption isotherms (Freundlich, Langmuir, BET), physisorption vs chemisorption, and catalysis.
First law of thermodynamics at PGT depth: system/surroundings/boundary, state vs path functions, internal energy, heat and work sign conventions, enthalpy, Hess's law, Kirchhoff's equation, bond energies, heat capacities, reversible/irreversible processes, isothermal and adiabatic work, Joule–Thomson effect, and calorimetry.
Second law of thermodynamics at PGT depth: spontaneous processes, heat engines and the Carnot cycle, Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements, entropy as a state function, entropy changes for every standard process, third-law absolute entropies, Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies, ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, Gibbs–Helmholtz equation, criteria for spontaneity and equilibrium, and the thermodynamic potential relations.
Third law and statistical thermodynamics at PGT depth: the Nernst heat theorem, absolute entropy scale, residual entropy exceptions, unattainability of absolute zero; Boltzmann statistics, microstates and ensembles, partition functions and their factorisation, derivation of thermodynamic functions from q, Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds, and the bridge between statistical mechanics and classical thermodynamics.
Chemical equilibrium at PGT depth: dynamic equilibrium, law of mass action, Kp and Kc and their interconversion, reaction quotient Q vs K, ΔG° = −RT ln K, Le Chatelier's principle in all its forms (concentration, pressure, temperature, inert gas, catalyst), degree of dissociation, homogeneous vs heterogeneous equilibrium, and van't Hoff's equation.
Ionic equilibrium at PGT depth: Arrhenius, Bronsted–Lowry and Lewis acid-base theories, ionic product of water Kw, pH/pOH scale and calculations, Ostwald dilution law, salt hydrolysis, buffer solutions and the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, buffer capacity, solubility product Ksp and common-ion effect, indicators and acid-base titration curves.
Solutions and colligative properties at PGT depth: types of solutions and concentration units, Henry's and Raoult's laws, ideal vs non-ideal solutions and azeotropes, all four colligative properties (vapour-pressure lowering, boiling-point elevation, freezing-point depression, osmotic pressure), van't Hoff factor and abnormal molar masses, and osmosis with isotonic solutions.
Chemical kinetics at PGT depth: rate laws and rate constants, order vs molecularity, zero/first/second-order integrated equations and half-lives, the Arrhenius equation and activation energy, collision theory and transition-state theory, catalysts and catalysis mechanisms, and enzyme kinetics.
Phase equilibrium at PGT depth: phases, components and degrees of freedom, Gibbs phase rule F = C − P + 2, one-component systems (water, sulphur, CO₂), two-component eutectic systems, the lever rule, solid-liquid and vapour-liquid equilibria, critical phenomena, and distillation diagrams.
Photochemistry at PGT depth: laws of photochemistry, quantum yield, primary and secondary processes, fluorescence and phosphorescence, Jablonski diagrams, photochemical vs thermal reactions, photosensitisation, chemiluminescence, and applications.
Nuclear chemistry at PGT depth: nuclear composition and stability, radioactive decay types (α, β, γ), decay kinetics and half-life, radioactive series, nuclear binding energy, fission and fusion, nuclear reactors, radioisotope applications, and radiation hazards.
Molecular structure and physical methods at PGT depth: Lewis and VSEPR geometry, hybridisation, polarity and dipole moment, resonance, spectroscopy regions and selection rules, rotational/vibrational/electronic spectra, and molecular orbital basics.
Helmholtz–Gouy–Chapman–Stern double-layer models, zeta potential, electrophoresis, electro-osmosis, streaming and sedimentation potentials — UG/PGT physical chemistry.
Electrochemistry at PGT depth: electrolytic conduction, conductance and Kohlrausch's law, electrolysis and Faraday's laws, galvanic vs electrolytic cells, electrode potentials and the electrochemical series, the Nernst equation, standard EMF, concentration cells, batteries and corrosion.
Quantum mechanics at PGT depth: black-body radiation and Planck's law, photoelectric effect and photons, Bohr's model and its failures, de Broglie waves, Heisenberg uncertainty, the Schrödinger equation and wavefunctions, quantum numbers, orbitals and shapes, Pauli/Hund/aufbau rules, and electronic configurations.
Periodic table and periodicity at PGT depth: development of the table, modern periodic law, s/p/d/f blocks, periods and groups, atomic and ionic radii, ionisation energy, electron affinity, electronegativity, oxidation states, and diagonal/inert-pair anomalies.
Chemical bonding at PGT depth: ionic, covalent, coordinate and metallic bonds; lattice energy and Born-Haber cycle; Fajans' polarisation rules; VSEPR geometry; valence bond theory and hybridisation; sigma/pi bonds; and bond parameters.
Molecular orbital theory and metallic bonding at PGT depth: LCAO method, bonding/antibonding MOs, σ and π MOs, MO diagrams for diatomics, bond order, magnetic properties, and the electron-sea plus band models of metals.
s-Block elements at PGT depth: hydrogen's unique position, ortho/para forms and hydrides; alkali metals (group 1) — properties, reactivity, compounds; alkaline earth metals (group 2) — properties, compounds, flame colours; and the diagonal Li–Mg and Be–Al anomalies.
p-Block boron and carbon families at PGT depth: group 13 (boron family) — properties, borax, boric acid, boranes, diborane's banana bonds, aluminium; group 14 (carbon family) — carbon allotropes, silicon/silicates, tin, lead, oxides; and the metallic trend down the group.
p-Block groups 15-18 at PGT depth: nitrogen family (NH₃, HNO₃, allotropes, oxides); oxygen family (O₂, O₃, H₂O₂, sulphur allotropes, H₂SO₄); halogens (reactivity, HX, oxoacids, displacement); and noble gases (inertness, Xe compounds).
d-Block transition elements at PGT depth: definition and general properties (variable oxidation states, colour, magnetism, catalysis), the four series (3d, 4d, 5d, 6d), inner transition (lanthanides/actinides preview), and important compounds (KMnO₄, K₂Cr₂O₇, ferrous/ferric, copper compounds).
f-Block inner transition elements at PGT depth: lanthanides (4f) — properties, lanthanide contraction, oxidation states, extraction and uses; actinides (5f) — radioactivity, nuclear fuel, transuranic elements; the f-block's unique chemistry.
Coordination compounds at PGT depth: Werner's theory and terminology, ligand types, coordination number, IUPAC nomenclature, isomerism (ionisation, hydrate, linkage, coordination, geometrical, optical), and bonding theories (valence bond — hybridisation and magnetism).
Crystal field theory at PGT depth: d-orbital splitting in octahedral and tetrahedral fields, Δo and Δt, high-spin vs low-spin, CFSE calculation, spectrochemical series, pairing energy, John-Teller distortion, and how CFT explains colour and magnetism where VBT failed.
Organometallic chemistry at PGT depth: definition and classification (σ, π, ionic), the 18-electron rule, metal carbonyls and sandwich compounds (ferrocene), main-group organometallics (Grignard, organolithium, organozinc), and the great catalytic cycles (hydrogenation, hydroformylation, Ziegler-Natta).
Bio-inorganic chemistry at PGT depth: essential vs toxic metals, haemoglobin/myoglobin oxygen transport, chlorophyll and photosynthesis, metalloenzymes (carboxypeptidase, cytochromes, nitrogenase), vitamin B₁₂, metal transport/storage (ferritin, ion pumps), and metals in medicine (cisplatin, chelation therapy).
Metallurgy and qualitative analysis at PGT depth: ores and concentration methods, roasting/calcination, Ellingham diagrams and reduction, refining (electrolytic, zone, van Arkel, Mond), then the systematic salt analysis — dry tests, wet tests for anions and the cation group table with the chemistry of each group reagent.
Ligand substitution — labile/inert classification, SN1CB, trans effect, water exchange, and kinetic vs thermodynamic stability at UG+ depth.
Organic chemistry foundations at PGT depth: the vital-force theory's fall, catenation and hybridisation of carbon, structural representation, functional groups, purification techniques (crystallisation, distillation, chromatography), and qualitative/quantitative elemental analysis (Lassaigne's, Kjeldahl, combustion).
Systematic naming and structural isomerism at PGT depth: IUPAC rules for selecting the parent chain, numbering, substituent naming, functional-group priority order, naming polyfunctional compounds and cyclic systems, then the complete structural-isomerism map — chain, position, functional, metamerism, tautomerism and ring-chain.
The engine room of organic chemistry at PGT depth: inductive, resonance/mesomeric, hyperconjugation and electromeric effects; how they explain acidity/basicity; then the reactive intermediates — carbocations, carbanions, free radicals, carbenes, nitrenes and arynes — their structure, stability order and rearrangements.
The three great mechanism families at PGT depth: nucleophilic substitution SN1 vs SN2 (kinetics, stereochemistry, solvent effects), electrophilic addition to alkenes (Markovnikov, anti-Markovnikov, the carbocation route), elimination E1 vs E2 (Saytzeff vs Hofmann, substitution-elimination competition), and the nucleophile/electrophile vocabulary.
The hydrocarbon families at PGT depth: alkane conformational analysis (Newman projections, staggered/eclipsed, conformers of butane), alkene E/Z isomerism and addition reactions, alkyne acidity and reduction chemistry, plus the C-H bond strength, hybridisation and reactivity comparisons.
Aromaticity at PGT depth: Hückel's rule and the 4n+2 electron count, what makes a compound aromatic vs anti-aromatic vs non-aromatic, benzene's structure and stability, then electrophilic aromatic substitution — the mechanism, the directing effects (ortho-para vs meta), activation and deactivation, and the classic reactions (nitration, halogenation, sulphonation, Friedel-Crafts).
Stereochemistry at PGT depth: optical isomerism (chirality, enantiomers, R/S assignment, optical activity, racemisation), diastereomers and meso compounds, E/Z geometric isomerism, and conformational analysis (Newman projections, cyclohexane chair/boat, axial/equatorial, ring-flip, substituted cyclohexanes).
The organohalogen chapter at PGT depth: haloalkane classification and preparation, the C-X bond's polarity and its two fates — nucleophilic substitution (SN1 vs SN2) vs elimination (E1 vs E2) — the competition rules, haloarene's low reactivity and its special mechanisms, plus the polyhalogen compounds and environmental chemistry.
The oxygen-functional-group chapter at PGT depth: alcohol classification and acidity, preparation routes, the O-H and C-O reactions, oxidation products, phenol's acidity and ring reactions, ether structure and cleavage, plus the distinguishing tests and industrial alcohols.
The carbonyl chapter at PGT depth: the C=O group's structure and polarity, nucleophilic addition mechanism, the aldehyde-ketone reactivity ladder, the named reactions (aldol, Cannizzaro, Clemmensen, Wolff-Kishner, iodoform), the distinguishing tests (Tollens, Fehling, Schiff), and the α-hydrogen chemistry that runs enolate reactions.
The carboxyl chapter at PGT depth: the -COOH group's structure and why it is acidic, acidity effects of substituents, the derivative family (acid chloride, anhydride, ester, amide) and their reactivity ladder, nucleophilic acyl substitution, the interconversion routes, and the saponification/hydrolysis chemistry.
The nitrogen-functional-group chapter at PGT depth: amine classification and basicity, preparation routes (reduction, ammonolysis, Hofmann, Gabriel), the amine reactions, aniline's special behaviour, nitro-compound reduction, and the diazonium salt's role as the gateway to aryl substitution.
The heterocycle chapter at PGT depth: the five-membered aromatics (furan, thiophene, pyrrole) and their reactivity, the six-membered pyridine and its basicity-electrophilic chemistry, the fused indole/quinoline systems, nomenclature, and the named syntheses (Paal-Knorr, Fischer indole).
The alicyclic chapter at PGT depth: the carbocyclic rings (cyclopropane to cycloheptane+), Baeyer's ring-strain theory and its modern correction, the cyclohexane conformations (chair/boat/axial-equatorial), the small-ring reactivity, and the fused/spiro/bridged systems.
The pericyclic chapter at PGT depth: the concerted cyclic transition-state reactions — electrocyclic ring closures, cycloadditions (Diels-Alder), and sigmatropic rearrangements — governed by the Woodward-Hoffmann orbital-symmetry rules, with the thermal-vs-photochemical selection logic.
The named-reactions chapter at PGT depth: the condensation reactions (aldol, Claisen, Perkin, Knoevenagel), the rearrangements (pinacol, Beckmann, Hofmann, Fries), the named oxidations-reductions (Cannizzaro, Wolff-Kishner, Clemmensen, Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley), and the synthesis logic that strings them together.
The biomolecules chapter at PGT depth: the carbohydrate classification and glucose's structure (open-chain, ring, anomers, mutarotation), the amino-acid + peptide + protein structure levels, the nucleic-acid base-pairing and DNA-RNA differences, and the lipid/enzyme framing.
The polymer chapter at PGT depth: addition vs condensation polymerisation, the chain-growth mechanism (free radical, ionic, coordination), the named polymers (PE, PVC, PS, nylon, PET, Bakelite), the molecular-weight concepts, the copolymers, and the biodegradable/conducting polymers.
The vitamins-hormones-drugs chapter at PGT depth: the fat/water-soluble vitamin table with deficiency diseases, the hormone classification and the steroid/peptide divide, the drug classes (antibiotic, analgesic, antacid, antiseptic) and the chemistry in everyday life.
The spectroscopy chapter at PGT depth: UV-Vis (the conjugation/electronic transitions), IR (the functional-group fingerprint frequencies), ¹H NMR (chemical shift, integration, splitting, n+1 rule), and mass spectrometry (the molecular ion, fragmentation, base peak).
Phenol, aniline, anisole, benzaldehyde and benzoic acid — acidity/basicity, directing effects and named reactions at PGT depth.
Nitriles vs isonitriles — structure, carbylamine test, hydrolysis, reduction and synthetic routes at PGT depth.
Steroid nucleus, ring labelling, cholesterol, sex hormones, corticosteroids, bile acids and biosynthesis at PGT depth.
Nucleic acid structure, base pairing, replication enzymes and DNA fingerprinting — VNTR, STR, PCR, applications.
Food additives — preservatives, antioxidants, sweeteners, flavour enhancers, colourants and their E-numbers at PGT level.
Saponification, soap action, hard-water problem, anionic/cationic/nonionic detergents and builders at PGT depth.